Human osteoarchaeology involves the scientific excavation, recording, recovery, and analysis of archaeological human remains. This includes all archaeological human remains including skeletal remains such as inhumations and cremations, and more fleshy remains including the infamous 'bog bodies'. In Irish archaeology most of the recovered human remains consist either of inhumations or cremations. Once uncovered, the correct excavation, recording, and recovery of human remains are essential. The procedures involved are adapted to suit each individual case. For example, excavation of a fully articulated adult skeleton involves a different set of procedures than that of the excavation of an urn filled with cremated human bone. This is in order to gain as much information as possible because, once completed, the process of excavation cannot be replicated.

Due to the fact that excavation essentially destroys part of our past, accurate recording of the in-situ human remains is very important. Vital clues as regards the treatment of the corpse after death and information on the methods of burial/disposal of the remains can be retrieved on excavation. Once excavated the bones are cleaned and are then analysed by an osteoarchaeologist. Using recognised methods of analysis it is possible to determine the age, sex, and stature of an adult skeleton. The dental remains may be analysed in order to reveal information about dental diseases, diet, and cultural activities. In addition, human skeletal remains can reveal evidence of various pathological lesions and/or disease processes.

All of this information may be combined to provide a wealth of information. This may be utilised on a microscopic level as regards an individual and what we may learn about the life of a single person. In addition on a macroscopic scale we may learn about the health of a population, the diseases they suffered from, and also we may learn about cultural practices/biases with regards to work practices, gender divisions, medical care, and of course the treatment of the dead.

In the past number of years Aegis Archaeology Ltd has undertaken a number of important osteoarchaeological projects. Aegis offers analysis of both inhumed and cremated remains. The osteoarchaeological projects that Aegis Archaeology Ltd have been involved in include inhumations from:

   • Relickoran, Inishmurray Island, Co. Sligo, for J.O'Sullivan in association with Duchas
   • Nenagh North, Co. Tipperary, Aegis
   • Dublin Road, Naas, Co. Kildare, for M.Tierney
   • Ballysimon, Co. Limerick, Aegis Archaeology Limited
   • Killalee Church, Fossa, Co. Kerry, for E.Dennehy
   • Newtown, Co. Limerick, Aegis Archaeology Limited
   • Hermitage, Co. Limerick, Aegis
   • Sceilig Mhíchíl, Co. Kerry, E.Bourke, Duchas
   • Cloghermore Cave, Co. Kerry, Aegis
   • Manorhamilton, Co. Leitrim, D.Moore
   • St. John's St., Sligo Town, F.Ryan

In addition, a number of cremations were also analysed. These include:
   • Rockfield, Co. Kerry, Aegis Archaeology Limited
   • Newtown, Co. Limerick, Aegis Archaeology Limited

Short abstracts are included on a number of the completed osteoarchaeological projects undertaken by Aegis.

INHUMATIONS
Nenagh North, Co. Tipperary, (under excavation licence 01E0082)

Excavation at Nenagh

Samples are currently being analysed for radio carbon dating. The project was funded in full by the developer Mr G.O'Gorman.

Newtown, Co. Limerick (under excavation licence 01E0214)

Adult skull fragments - age and sex undetermined due to small fragments of the remains, which were found associated with a slot trench of a possible structure. The excavation was funded by the NRA and Limerick County Council.

CREMATIONS
Rockfield, Co. Kerry (under excavation licence 99E0323)
A small complex of features were excavated along the new line of the N21 in Rockfield, Co. Kerry in 1999. Cremated bone was recovered from a pit. This pit was associated with a circular pit into which were cut two channels, while a flue extended out from one of the channels. There was extensive evidence of intense burning. A very small quantity of cremated bone was recovered from the former pit - just 29g in weight. The bones was identified as human and represented the remains of at least one adult of undetermined sex. The bones were very well cremated and the small size of the fragments suggest that the bones were further processed after cremation, possibly by pounding. Certainly the remains appear to represent a token deposit. It seems likely that the nearby circular pit with cross-shaped channels and flue represent the remains of the cremation pyre itself.

References:
Collins, T. & Lynch, L. 2001 'Prehistoric burial and ritual, in southwest Ireland', Antiquity 75, 493-4.
Collins, T. forthcoming, Excavations at Rockfield County Kerry in Journal of the Kerry Archaeological and Historical Society.

Newtown, Co. Limerick (under excavation licence 01E0214)
Although the cremated deposits from Newtown were lifted and examined separately, it is unlikely that there are actually two separate contexts. Therefore, the minimum number of individuals represented by the cremated deposits from Newtown is four individuals - an infant (3/4 months), a child (4-7 years), an adolescent/young adult, and an adult individual. There is no evidence to indicate that the infant and adult remains recovered consecutively from both the main and the western deposits represent a duplication of individuals. Instead the remains probably represent a single infant and a single adult. Further osteological analysis was unfortunately limited, primarily by the fragmentation of the material. Apart from an MNIs and probable ages-at-death the only other osteological information that could be gained is that the adult individual was recovering from a probable iron-deficiency anaemia at the time of death.

The cremated human deposits from Newtown provide a valuable insight into the nature of the whole ritual of cremation. Cremation, before the advent of the technology in modern crematoria, is a complex and detailed procedure, requiring planning and a significant input of time and effort. In order for a body to completely incinerate the pyre needs to be regularly maintained both to keep an adequate temperature but also to push back any semi-cremated bones to the centre of the pyre (O' Donnabháin 1997, 69). Apart from a very small number of fragments, the bones from Newtown are well cremated having a white, chalky appearance. This includes bones from the extremities such as the distal hand phalanges. Studies have shown that the temperatures needed to cremate a body completely are between 645OC and 1200OC (Mays 1998, 217). This indicates that considerable time and effort was taken to ensure that all the bodies were completely incinerated. Unfortunately, there are no indications as to whether the bodies were all cremated together at the same time.

Although the bone fragments from the Newtown cremations are very small in size (see below), some of the larger preserved fragments display evidence of distortion and splitting. This indicates a number of factors. Firstly it seems likely that when the bodies were burnt there was still flesh and particularly fat attached to the bone, as opposed to the burning of defleshed bones. In a modern crematorium, when the body reaches a temperature of 800OC the fat in the body ignites and essentially, the body then burns so fiercely that the gas jets may be switched off (Mays 1998, 219-20 after McKinley 1994). The splitting on the bones from Newtown indicate intense burning such as this. In addition, the larger fragments indicate significant warping and distortion. This suggests that the bodies were placed under or in the centre of the pyre. This warping does not occur in bones from modern crematoria and instead appear to occur as a result of the actual weight of the pyre on the body (O' Donnabháin 1997, 69).

An examination of the size distribution of the cremated fragments from Newtown is also interesting. The table below provides a summary of the fragment size of the cremated bones (already noted above).

Distribution of sizes of cremated bone fragments, Newtown

The table above indicates that there is little difference in the distribution of bone size between the two deposits which indicates, as stated earlier, that the deposits are probably part of the same overall context. In view of the fact that most of the fragments are less than 10mm in size with the majority being smaller than 5mm, it suggests that there was an additional processing of the bones after cremation. Contrary to modern popular belief, the process of cremation does not naturally produce the 'ashes' of the deceased. Instead, the body is reduced to a quantity of burnt fragments some of which can be quite large. In a modern context, these fragments are ground down to produce the apparently more acceptable sight of a pile of 'ashes'. It appears a similar procedure was carried out on these cremations. As mentioned above, firstly the bodies were very well cremated. Afterwards, the bone fragments appear to have been meticulously recovered and subject to some form of grinding which reduced the bones to the overall small fragment size indicated above. As Mount (1997, 158) notes, the crushing of the bones of a collection of individuals was a relatively common practice in the Neolithic, and the evidence of it from this site suggests some form of continuation of belief systems through time.

Furthermore, it is possible to assess the rates of preservation of the major body parts. Although the cremated bone fragments were quite small and this, in turn, hampered the usual osteological analysis, it was possible to identify fragments according to the major body parts, in particular the head, the torso and the limbs (see Table below). The table shows and compares the identified main skeletal elements from the deposits in Newtown with the expected rates of preservation.

Preservation of identified skeletal elements, Newtown, compared with expected rates of preservation (after O' Donnabháin 1997, 70).

The number of individuals recovered is irrelevant as the quantities do not differ from one individual to the next. In addition, the expected rates of preservation are based on an average adult skeleton which weighs approximately the same as a cremated individual (O' Donnabháin 1997, 70). It is essential to realise that the figures for Newtown are not completely reliable due to the fragmentation of the deposits and the fact that there was such a high quantity of unidentified material (68.9% unidentified in total). However, it does provide a general overview. Elements of the torso are very underrepresented. This may be due to poor retrieval, or the bones may have been ground down beyond recognition, or they may have been selected for disposal in another manner. There appears to be an overrepresentation of the limbs in the main deposit and an under-representation of the limbs in the western deposit. With regards to the head, the expected rates are present in the main deposit but grossly over-represented in the western deposit. As mentioned above, the western deposit consisted primarily of juvenile remains. Thus proportionally, a significant quantity of juvenile skull fragments were present to the west of the main deposit. This may have occurred purely by chance or it may have been a deliberate action as part of the cremation and disposal rite.

The total weight of cremated bone (both identified and unidentified) recovered from the Newtown deposits was 1496g. A properly cremated human adult body generally produces between 1600g and 3500g of bone, with an average weight of approximately 3000g (McKinley 1989). As mentioned above, the Newtown cremations represent a minimum of an infant, a young child, an adolescent/young adult, and an adult. It is clear that there is an vast underrepresentation of the complete bodies of these individuals. It is apparent that the body parts were meticulously collected after cremation, as some of the smallest body parts are present and there is little or no discernible pyre debris within the cremations. This suggests that quantities of the cremated bodies were deposed of or utilised in some other, as yet unrecognised, manner. There is also the possibility that only selected portions of the fresh bodies were chosen for cremation.

Finally, although multiple individuals are not unusual in cremation deposits, it is relatively rare to uncover the remains of four individuals. In a recent study by Mount (1997) of early bronze age burials in south-east Ireland, the numbers of individuals contained in two hundred and twenty-five burial sites was summarised. Only six of these sites contained four or more individuals. None appeared to represent the remains of a single adult and three children. In addition, it is not stated if any of the children were infants. Fragments of cremated infants were recovered with adult individuals from a small number of the bronze age cremation graves from a cemetery mound in Grange, Co. Roscommon (O' Donnabháin 1997).

The discovery of a burial context containing multiple individuals is often difficult to interpret on a number of levels. Perhaps one of the most important aspects to be considered is what is the likelihood that - in the case of the Newtown cremations - four individuals died in or around the same time. Three of the individuals were children and their deaths may automatically (though it is unlikely to be this clear cut) be attributed to the fact that the young may have been more susceptible to death in the past. Indeed, as mentioned above, the splitting on some of the bone fragments indicate that the bodies were fresh when they were burnt. This would suggest that the deaths occurred at the same time. However, there is no way of quantifying exactly whose body/bodies the cracked bones came from. There is the possibility that these individuals died over a period of time and that the corpses were in some way stored until it was finally decided to cremate them. Unfortunately, it is impossible to tell from the remains. The sheer physical effort involved in cremation as opposed to inhumation or exposure of the body suggests that individuals who were cremated were, in some way, deemed different to other individuals in a community. In the bronze age in Ireland it seems unlikely that every individual was cremated. There can be no indication as to whether a person was cremated because she/he was considered valuable to a community or whether the individual was considered an outcast. These, and countless other possibilities exist.

Conclusions
The cremated deposits from Newtown represent the remains of at least four individuals - one adult and three children, including one infant. The bodies - some of which were certainly fresh at the time of cremation - appear to have been expertly cremated. There is also evidence of meticulous collection of the bones and post-cremation processing of the remains. In addition, the under-representation of both a number of skeletal elements and of general skeletal weights indicate that portions of the bodies and/or the cremated remains were specially selected for utilisation in some other manner. The cremations recovered from this site indicate that although general osteological analysis is limited on these types of human skeletal remains, the validity of their study is unquestionable because of the other invaluable information the bones may yield.

The excavation of this site was funded by the NRA and Limerick County Council. Dates are forthcoming for several samples retained from the site.